Clark/Kozman Articles

Clark (1983) took a position that media do not influence learning under any conditions. Clark raised a question about exploring the conditions under which media will influence learning. It posits the need to consider the capabilities of media, and the methods that employ them as they interact with the cognitive and social processes by which knowledge is constructed. The Clark/Kozma media effects debate will continue to have significance as a foundational issue in which novice practitioners of instructional design and curriculum development will need to become conversant. Ross (1994) sums up the situation:
Assigning too much influence to media can lead to the design/ development of sloppy, ineffective instructional materials that are accepted by technologists and users simply because they utilize CBI, interactive video, or other 'high-status' delivery media. Assigning too little influence to media, on the other hand, may discourage reflective thinking by designers about which media can best convey the instructional strategies needed to achieve instructional objectives (p. 6).
Thus, media effects discussions point out the complexities and deep interrelationships among the various parts of instruction and human cognition. In short, the media vs. the message debate and it's transformation into appropriate interactivity choices to establish deeper cognitive relevance, helps to keep educational technologists focused on learning. Learning is an active, constructive, and social process by which the learner strategically manages available cognitive, physical, and social resources to create new knowledge by interacting with information already stored in memory (Shuell, 1988). From this perspective, knowledge and learning are neither solely a property of the individual or of the environment. Rather, they are the reciprocal interaction between the learner’s cognitive resources and aspects of the external environment (Greeno, 1988; Pea, 1993; Perkins, 1993; Salomon, 1993) and this interaction is strongly influenced by the extent to which internal and external resources fit together (Snow, 1992)
The study of science can be very abstract in nature leading to more questions been asked at the end of learning than was answered. No doubt the ThinkerTools project (White 1993) used in the representation of objects in motion was salient to novice students whose prior knowledge is either insufficient to create mental models of Newtonian motion or inaccurate such that the trajectories that they supply are contrary to scientific principles (ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 2). It goes to say that to some extent media can be very useful in influencing learning. I am convinced beyond reasonable doubt that media and learning have mutual benefits to each other. However, the use of media in disseminating information should be left to individuals to decide. I remember Linda a learning specialist who is no doubt very good at what she does but the use of computers, television and varying technology proved handicap to her. Using any of these media in training kids detracts from the good she brings to the audience whereas the information has always proved very valuable. Linda clearly agreed that she is not compatible with technology and would rather flip through the television channels by walking up to the TV and manually change it rather than use the remote control. Learning, regardless of the individual can be influenced if individuals can have a set reward in sight if the learning is accomplished. Telling myself that I will go to movie and eat out if I successfully learn what is required for my test or homework. These rewards do not necessarily have to be anything big, but having such motivation would no doubt influence many to learn with reward in mind. Considering that a lot of money may be involved to implement media worthwhile, it will be wrong to suggest that learning may never take place without it or to imply media as a must for learning to occur.

References:
Clark, R. E. (1994a). Media and method. The media influence debate: Read the fine print, but don't lose sight of the big picture. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 42(2), 7-10.

Clark, R. E. (1994b). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 42(2), 21-29.

Kozma, R. B. (1994a). A reply: Media and methods. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 42(2), 11-14.

ETR&D, Vol. 42, No. 2, 1994, pp. 21-29 ISSN 1042-1629